General Profile of the YI::: 

Southwest China...The Big Cold Mountains...The Dragon-shaped Province ... where natural language and ethnic barriers fall along river valleys and mountain ranges. The Yi peoples farm and herd on lands at tremendous elevations - steep, rocky, and often unfertile. Their existence is marked by poverty. Hidden away from the vast population and bustle of urban China, does anyone consider them or know they are out there?

The village is small, only about sixty mud-brick houses and a one-room school. The land area is flat, but drops off drastically at the edge. The people stay in their village, only leaving two or three times a year to travel to a market town and trade. All of their needs - food, water, shelter, medical, spiritual - must be met or left unmet by the mountain. There are unknown numbers of these villages nestled throughout the mountain ranges. Many are living higher up and further in. There are 8 million Yi located in the Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou. They represent six different language groups and thirty different peoples with distinct cultures and ways of communicating. Will you help them to hear the gospel?

The Bible is ... a book? Of the six total Yi language groups, not one has a complete translation of the Bible. In the majority of the languages, no translation work exists at all. What would happen if a Bible or gospel tract was produced and distributed in their languages? 70% would not be able to read it because they are illiterate. Most of the languages have no written script.

Eight out of ten Yi have never heard of Jesus for the first time. Whole villages go about their daily lives without knowing that there is a God who loves them and died for their sins. They live in great fear of demons and honor and worship the creation rather than its Creator. The Yi practice animism - worshipping and appeasing the spirits of their ancestors and of hills, trees, rocks, water, earth, sky, wind, and forests. Magic plays a major role in daily life through exorcism, asking for rain, cursing enemies, divination and analysis of one's relationship with the spirits.

There is hope. Yi traditions contain stories that could provide bridges to the gospel. They believe in a high creator god. A major Yi celebration, the Torch Light Festival, remembers a wrestling match between the gods of earth and sky and the lighting fire of their fields as a result of this battle. Some say that this festival also honors Ie-su (Chinese word for Jesus), their god of life and happiness, though this is not certain. The Yi are an oral society. The gospel could reach them through personal witness, storytellers, cassettes, and radios. God has promised that they will be reached. How will you be a part of God's plan to reach them?

"After this I looked and there before me was a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, tribe, people, and language, standing before the throne and in front of the Lamb."     Revelation 7:9

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People name:

Yi - The Yi are one of the 56 official nationalities in China. All Yi, no matter what sub-group they are in, are classified as Yi by the Chinese government. In the past some were also called by another name which meant "the aliens." Sometimes Yi are also referred to as "Lolo." This term probably derived from the Chinese word for basket. The Yi were thought to keep the souls of their parents in miniature baskets. Chinese use this term as a derogatory expression or ethnic slur. "Lolo" does also relate the principal totem animal of the Yi which is the tiger. They have referred to themselves as the "tiger nationality."

People Description:

The Chinese government has grouped the Nosu, Lolo, Sani, Axi, Luoluopo, Nasu, and dozens of other peoples speaking more than six completely distinct languages with dozens of dialects into a single group called the Yi. The six main language groups can generally be divided along geographical lines and labeled Northern, Central, Southwestern, Southern, Southeastern, and Eastern. Because of the various languages and dialects, a Yi from one area may not be able to communicate with a Yi from another area; and may or may not even agree that they both are Yi.

Most Yi are mountain people making out their existence as farmers; herders of cattle, sheep and goats; and nomadic hunters. They are poor and often lacking in basic needs. Only about one third of the Yi are literate, and most Yi have no written language.

Yi dress and culture also varies. Most Yi women wear a head covering of some sort that indicates a distinction between those who are married and those who are not. A large number of Yi women wear long pleated and tiered skirts. Others commonly wear pants under tunics, aprons, or vests. The Yi women are known for their beautiful embroidery. Many Yi men dress similarly to their Han neighbors (do not maintain a distinction in dress). There are some however who wear goat skin capes or coats and head turbans. Almost all Yi celebrate the Torch Lighting Festival. Yi have a rich tradition of folk stories and music.

The Yi peoples are animistic - worshiping the spirits of natural things and living in great fear of demons. There is a small percentage of Yi Christians concentrated in two sub-groups (Wuding Lipo and Eastern Nasu).

World Population

about 8 million - The exact population is unknown. According to the 1990 census, there were 6,572,173 Yi in China. The actual current population may be as much as 1.5 million more. In addition to the population in China, a few thousand are also believed to live in Laos (~5,000), Vietnam (~6,000), and Northeast Myanmar (Burma).

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Country:

China, with a few thousand related peoples possibly located in Laos, Vietnam, and northeastern Burma.

Provinces/States

Primarily Yunnan, Southern Sichuan, and Western Guizhou provinces in China

Cities:

No notable ones. There are no known cities with significant Yi populations. Any cities where Yi exist would have a very small population or they have been assimilated.

General Description

Bordered by Burma, Laos, and Vietnam, southwest China is a beautiful, green area full of gorges, rivers, waterfalls, rolling hills, and mountains. The general climate is temperate, though this will vary in different elevations and locations. Some parts of the southwest are even subtropical. Kunming city in Yunnan (at 2000+ meters) is called the city of eternal spring. Though scenic, the country can also be harsh, particularly for those pushed further and further up the overworked mountainsides. Of the nearly 8 million Yi people, over 4 1/2 million live in Yunnan Province, 2 million live in southern Sichuan Province, and 1/2 million live in the northwest corner of Guizhou Province. Nearly all are carving out their existence on the sides of steep mountain slopes far from the cities of China.

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Percentage who speak the Mother tongue:

90% (Yi who speak one of the major Yi languages or a dialect.)

Percentage who read the Mother tongue:

less than 10 % - Only three of the 100+ Yi people groups have a written script. Within these three groups (Nosu, Lipo & Eastern Nasu) the literacy rate would be higher, perhaps approaching 30%.

Primary (and secondary) school language:

Mandarin Chinese

Percentage who speak the Primary school language:

About 40%- In most cases, those Yi who speak Mandarin would speak a very thick dialect (Yunnanhua). They would have difficulty effectively communicating with those who speak standard (putonghua) Chinese.

Percentage who read the Primary school language:

About 36% Most of these would be considered "functionally illiterate" since they would only read signs or other common phrases in Chinese. Most would not use Chinese to obtain new information.

Trade Language

Mandarin Chinese

International Language

English - Those who speak English would only be those who have a high school education or more. Those fortunate enough to attend a teacher's college or training school should be able to understand (both oral and written) basic sentences. They would have extreme difficulty speaking English however.

Percentage who speak an International language:

less than 2%

Percentage who read an International Language:

less than 2%

Literacy rate:

36% (officially)- This probably refers only to those who are able to function in Chinese.

Literacy (Male):

Unknown. - Male literacy may be higher than female literacy since women do most of the work in the fields. Girls may be forced to leave school at an earlier age or skip altogether.

Literacy (Female):

Unknown. - Somewhat lower than the male literacy rate.

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Basic Beliefs:

Yi are generally animists. Animistic beliefs and practices impact every aspect of Yi life. (see section on Primary religion)

People History:

(This information particularly relates to the large Nosu sub-group located in southern Sichuan.)

The Yi have a long and interesting history. Linguistically, they are part of the Tibeto-Burman language family. Both the Burmese and the Tibetans could be considered distant cousins. Because many Yi have Caucasoid physical features, many believe they may have originally come from the west, with a possible connection with Iranian or Indo-Afghan types. The earliest records of the Yi date back to before the time of Christ in the second century BC. At that time, they were a migratory people. They traveled throughout much of southern and southwestern China and into Indochina before settling at their present location in Yunnan and Sichuan, China. It was during this time that the Yi became a class society. This led to the establishment of a slave state called "Nanzhao" whose leader held the title "King of Yunnan."

The practice of slavery among the Yi continued and developed into an important part of their culture. The "Black Bone Yi" (Heiyi) were the noble class and slave owners. In this class each adult male was given the right to have a seat and participate in a democratic conference regarding important matters to his clan. He was also expected to fight for the clan and enjoyed the respect due a clan warrior. "As clan groups with blood ties, families of the Heiyi jiazhis (clan branches) lived together, with rivers and/or tall mountains serving as natural boundaries marking the territory of each group. Yi jiazhis decimated the population by plunging it into innumerable feuds and endless warfare." Enmity, once born (and this could even be among households of the same branch), would be passed down through generations. In one case a feud was passed through thirteen generations. The "Black Yi" or "Heiyi" accounted for less than 10 percent of the total population.

The "White Bone Yi" (Baiyi) or remaining Yi could be divided into three sub-groups: farmers (who were more like serfs), servants/laborers, and cattle (though they were human, they were bought, sold, used to pull plows, and slaughtered like animals.) Some of these sub-groups possessed slaves themselves and the other half were themselves slaves. The majority of the latter group came from the children of slaves and from captured freeman. The Yi would capture or purchase Han Chinese from the neighboring communities and force them into slavery. After the revolution in 1949, this practice began to change. By 1956, the abolition of slavery and land reform was decreed. Also, the production of opium, which was a chief product of the Yi, was stopped. Today, the Han Chinese still do not trust the Yi because of their practice of slavery in the past. The Nosu have been slow to accept Chinese rule. The Nosu region was the last part of China to come under the control of the government in 1956. It is said that ten Chinese troops were killed in the fierce battles to every one Nosu casualty. Because of their rebellious and tenacious spirits, the Nosu earned the nickname "iron peas" from the Chinese. A generation of Yi men were also lost in this final stand off in "Liberation Valley."

Identity Self:

Most Yi do not use the term "Yi" to describe themselves. More likely, they would use their people group name such as "Sani" or "Nosu." Many would not even know they are classified as Yi by the Chinese government.

Identity Others:

Most Han Chinese would not make a distinction between the different types of Yi. All Yi are simply referred to as "Yi." Many Yi do not consider themselves to be Yi. In fact, they may be offended by the term.

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Employment rate:

The actual employment rate among Yi would be very low as far as those working outside of the village. Nearly all Yi, both men and women, work raising crops and animals. Most would not have extra production that they could sell for cash.

Average Annual Income:

less than $50.00

Exchange Rate:

8.07 RMB=$1.00US

Occupations and Income Sources:

The economy and livelihood of the Yi is primarily related to their geographic location. The largest concentration of Yi live in the DaLiang (Greater Cold) and XiaoLaing (Lesser Cold) mountains along the border of Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. The elevations in these areas range from 2,000 to 3,500 meters (approximately 6,000 to 12,000 feet). The altitudinal differences of the Yi areas create tremendous differences in the Yi lifestyles and economies. Traditionally the Yi have been involved in agriculture and animal husbandry. They would terrace the mountainsides to create useable farmland. Sheep were the principle livestock. Corn, buckwheat, oats, and potatoes were the most common crops. Some division of labor existed between men and women. Men cleared and plowed the fields, while the women sowed and cultivated the crops.

Today, the Yi are involved in a wider range of occupations besides traditional farming. Some are factory workers engaged in the production of farm equipment, fertilizer, and cement. Due to the tremendous natural resources in the area, many coal, copper, and iron mines have been started. The Yi have also helped to build more than 1,000 hydroelectric stations on the rivers that run through their mountains.

Trading Partners:

Most Yi only trade with those inside the village or neighboring villages. Because of this, there is no Nosu word for "market." A few Yi are beginning to bring handicrafts to cities to be sold for cash. Kunming has a number of Sani women who regularly come to sell embroidery and hand sewn items. Also, there are often Yi that sell handicrafts around the Stone Forest and other tourist areas in Yunnan.

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Infant Mortality Rate:

Exact rate is unknown. Overall the Yi have one of the highest birth rates and infant mortality rates in all of China.

Life Expectancy (Total):

62 (data for the Nosu only) - Other Yi peoples would probably be similar since they are all mountainous peoples with a similar lifestyle.

Life Expectancy (Male):

Unknown, probably early to mid sixties.

Life expectancy (Female):

Unknown, probably early to mid sixties.

Percent with access to safe drinking water:

Unknown. - Many Yi villages do not have running water in the village. Most would have no methods to purify the water other than boiling. Safe and adequate drinking water is a definite need in many Yi villages. Some villages require a daily two or three hour hike to bring back drinking water. Two water projects were done in 1996 in MouDing county, Yunnan by the DanYun company. Many more projects to provide safe drinking water are needed in Yi villages.

Percent with adequate and saft food:

Unknown. - Everything that is consumed by the Yi are also grown or raised by them. They do not have the cash to buy food from the outside and are generally too isolated to barter with neighbors. Most Yi have adequate food in certain months of the year. However, in the off seasons, food supplies can run short. Many Yi are hungry several months a year. Some Yi villages do receive government food subsidy. However, many Yi villages are not easily accessible so the subsidy food is not available.

Percent with access to basic health care:

Very low. - Most Yi villages do not contain a clinic or a trained doctor. Hospitals and clinics have been built in all areas of China, but it could be a day or longer walk for many Yi to reach a clinic. Many illnesses and diseases go untreated. Leprosy is a problem in some Yi areas. Worms, especially roundworms, are common in children. Infantile diarrhea is also a serious problem and often results in death. Many children show the effects of malnutrition. Children are often small in stature. Chronic problems like pneumonia, bronchitis, and diarrhea can go untreated in children and adults (elderly) for months.

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Percent with access to sanitation:

Unknown, but probably very low. - Most Yi villages still do not have safe and adequate toilet facilities. This often results in many health problems. Running water in villages is very scarce. Community health programs could easily instruct the Yi how to dig and maintain out houses a sufficient distance from the village to prevent most sanitation related health problems.

Percent with access to electricity:

Unknown. - Electricity has found its way into the remotest places in China. Many Yi villages do have electricity in the village. The capacity is very low however. Mostly houses have a single light bulb in each room. Electricity would not typically be used for heating or cooking.

Percent with access to shelter

Unknown. - Most Yi homes are two story structures. In some cases the animals are sheltered in the lower level and the family resides in the upper. The homes are constructed from sun-dried mud bricks with timber frame thatched roofs. Nosu areas often have roofs made of stone slabs. There are few windows and there is often a fire located on the floor in the room. Some Yi live in villages built with government subsidy (earthquake relief). These villages would typically have homes built of stucco bricks with tile or tin roofs. Some areas which are more forested have homes built of wood or bamboo.

Percent with access to fuel:

Unknown. - Most Yi still rely on wood as their basic fuel. They make regular trips into surrounding forests to forage for sticks and limbs to bundle up. Coal is available in some areas, but is less common. These fuels would be used for both cooking and heating.

Percent with access to transportation

Very low. - Most Yi rely on walking as basic transportation. If they are traveling to a market town, they may catch a ride in the back of a truck or on a public bus if one is available. Some Yi areas also have donkeys or horses that are used for transportation.

Other development needs:

Agricultural training is needed in many Yi areas. With the help of modern farming and animal husbandry techniques, the diet of the Yi could be greatly improved.

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Percent with access to primary school:

30 . 50% - According to 1982 data, about 27% of Yi over the age of six had attended elementary school. Many villages still do not have a primary school. In these villages, most children would not receive any formal education. Those villages with schools would be of the one room variety. The teacher may not have more than a few years education and little, if any, teacher training.

Percent with access to secondary school:

> 10% - According to 1982 data, less than 2% of Yi had attended secondary school. To attend a secondary school, the student would have to live in a market town. They could return to the village on the weekend. This kind of arrangement is very expensive for a Yi family. Most families would also rather have the extra help in the fields. The percentage of Yi attending a secondary school is raising but at a slow rate.

Percent with access to trade or technical school:

Unknown, but very low. (See college)

Percent with access to college:

Very low. - In 1982 only 3,157 Yi out of a total population of 5 million had completed some form of college.

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Percent with access to newspapers:

Unknown, but probably very low. - There are no known newspapers published in a Yi language. Some Yi would be able to read Mandarin newspapers but most who are able are functionally illiterate.

Percent with access to magazines:

Unknown, but probably very low.

Percent access to books:

Unknown, but probably very low. - There are some books published in the Nosu script.

Percent with access to radio:

Unknown, but probably relatively high. - It is unknown what types of radios most people would have. Most likely medium wave (AM) radios would be more common than short wave.

Percent with access to Television:

Unknown. - Televisions are standard equipment for most Chinese families today. They are less common in minority areas however. There are no known TV programs in a Yi language.

Percent with access to videos or VCDs:

Unknown, but definitely growing. - In Chinese cities, the VCD is more common today than videos. Video and VCD players would certainly be rare for the average family, but many villages would have one.

Other Media:

None known.

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Art Forms:

The Yi, along with several other peoples in southern China, practice a form of drama called nuo. It is a religious ritual theater deriving originally from exorcistic dances. One striking feature of nuo is the use of masks. The Yi of Weining, Guizhou practice a form of nuo called bianren xi that dramatizes the change of monkeys into people.

The Yi make beautiful, detailed embroidery. This embroidery goes into clothes, handbags, baby packs, hats, and many other items.

The Nosu Yi are famous for their unique lacquerware. The articles feature varying tones of red, yellow and black. The red color is the Yi symbol for bravery and ardor. Usually a natural scene or an animal is used for the pattern on the lacquerware.

Celebrations and Festivals:

The Torch Lighting Festival . 24th day of 6th lunar month. The celebration lasts for three days. Each village slaughters cattle and sheep to prepare a special festival dish. During this festival, they "carry torches and walk around their houses and fields, and plant pine torches on the field in the hope of driving away insect pests." The torch festival includes games such as wrestling, horseracing, and bull fighting for the men and singing, dancing, and playing music for the women. Other traditions of the Torch Festival include passing the heads of slaughtered sheep and chickens seven times over the heads of family members as a blessing and to ward off evil.

There are two different legends relating to this particular Yi Festival.

"One has it that a very long time ago, a (wicked) slave owner resorted to all manner of cruelty against his slaves who hated him passionately. Finally they rose up against him and, armed with clubs, sickles, hoes, and stones, attacked the slaveholder. s fortress. However, they could not break through his defenses. One night the slaves tied torches to the horns of a large flock of goats, holding torches. The slaveholder panicked before this sea of fire and the attackers seized the fortress and killed him. This great victory supposedly occurred on the night of the twenty-fourth day of the sixth lunar month."

A second legend says that the heavenly king sent a powerful spirit to destroy the people of the earth. This angered the earth spirit and resulted in a wrestling match between the two spirits or strong men. They wrestled for three days and three nights with the Yi people present and encouraging the spirit of the earth. "They played their three-stringed plucked instruments and short flutes, clapped their hands and stamped their feet." The spirit of the earth defeated the other spirit. This enraged the heavenly king who sent a plague of harmful insects (locusts) to destroy the crops. The people gathered pine branches and set them on fire and the smoke killed the insects. Again this is supposed to have occurred on the twenty-fourth day of the sixth lunar month. (two sources)

The "New Year Festival" (or "Spring Festival") is very important. In celebrating it, they sacrifice cattle, sheep, and pigs to their ancestors.

The "Spring Water Festival" is also fascinating. It lasts for six days and also includes dancing and music. Magicians play an important role in this festival. The magicians perform a kind of ceremonial washing in which evil spirits are washed off the people.

Recreation:

Many of the Yi festivals include forms of recreation. Bullfights, goat fights, wrestling, and horse riding are all popular. Other recreational games include spinning tops, pitching seeds into a hole, "tiger protecting stones," see-saws, and of course dancing.

Sports:

The Yi are not known to participate in any team sports.

Clothing:

Entire books (The Costumes and Adornments of the Yi Nationality Picture Album. Beijing, China: Beijing Arts and Crafts Publishing House, 1990.) have been written about the many styles and fashions of Yi clothing. All of the Yi people groups have their own distinct traditional clothing styles. In general, the Yi wear pants and a tunic type shirt. Much of the clothing worn by the women is made from embroidered fabric. The Nosu Yi are particularly known for their black, full length capes. They Nosu women also wear a large hat made of folded black material. The Nosu men grow their hair long in the front to create what is called a "Buddha's lock." It is often bound up or wrapped out to the point of a turban. It is said that the man's soul resides in this lock.

Music:

The Yi love music and dance. Much of their music is love songs or ballad-like stories. They also have poetry and epics that recount ancient traditions and customs.

One famous Yi love produced by the Sani people is called Ashima. The story concerns the beautiful Ashima abducted into a forced marriage with the local rich man's son. Her brother rescues her from this fate but she is accidentally drowned as they return home after the victory.

The Yi played a kind of guitar with three strings. The guitar is easy to play as it only has two notes.

Diet:

Corn, rice, potatoes, yams, maize and buckwheat are common in Yi areas. Cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats are also raised by Yi. In the highlands apples, walnuts, and chestnuts are grown. Quality of food could be improved greatly by teaching the Yi basic gardening techniques. Many green and yellow vegetables could be adapted to grow seasonally in Yi areas. The use of fertilizer could also greatly increase yield. Improved breeding stock would increase meat production in the animals.

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Family Structure

The Yi are a patriarchal, monogamous people. The idea of the nuclear family is strong. An independent household is set up after the marriage. Sometimes, the bride and groom will live with the bride. s family until the first child is born before moving out. Though both sons and daughters can receive an inheritance, the son is preferred. Women are disadvantaged in that the sons are allowed to live in the family home after marriage and usually receive a larger share of the inheritance.

Neighbor relations:

No specific information, but indications are that there is now more inter-mingling of Yi people groups with other Yi and with the Han. The Nosu still remain the most isolated. Where the Yi have moved into Han areas, they seem to quickly assimilate. By the second or third generation, the assimilated Yi can no longer speak a Yi language.

Conflicts and crisis:

The Yi have long been known as fierce warriors. Although defeated by Chinese forces in 226 AD, they continued to reject domination by the Chinese. In 594 AD the Yi again revolted from the Chinese and repelled their counter-attacks. In 712 AD the revolting area was further increased and remained independent for four hundred years, even during the extremely powerful Tang Dynasty. The Mongols overcame the "Kingdom of Southern Princes" (of which the Yi composed a major element) in the thirteenth century. There is almost certainly a reference to the Yi in the annals of Marco Polo.

In 1727, under pressure form the Manchus, they assumed a more narrow and defensible region in the DaLiang Shan (Greater Cool Mountains). This area expanded somewhat over the next 200 years. From 1920 until the 1940. s the Yi burned cities, captured government officials, and terrorized Chinese people who invaded what they considered to be their territory. This portion of the Yi were the independent Yi. A large number of Yi were more cooperative with the government, though virtually all maintained a definite identity and separation from the Chinese. In general, the White Yi tended to lean toward the policy of peaceful coexistence while the Black Yi (Nosu) were much more hostile.

Up until about 1956, the slave system had survived among the Yi people. There was a caste system with the Black Yi being the upper caste and the White Yi being the lower caste. Within each caste considerable mobility was possible either upwardly or downwardly. This could occur through financial success or failure or through armed combat. One could be taken captive or take others captive (both Yi and Han). This naturally led to a high level of violence in society. Slaves could buy their freedom and become serfs. Serfs could fail to pay their debts and become slaves. Slaves could move from the lower status field-workers to the higher status house-workers or vice-versa.

Government:

As previously mentioned the Yi, particularly the Nosu, were formerly divided into clans. Among the "Black Yi" decisions were made through a democratic clan conference called the "mayueciwei mengge." Every male in this ruling class was given a seat. All Yi were governed by clan leaders and all decisions were made by the clan leaders.

Since the Yi were defeated by the communist government of the Peoples. Republic of China, it is fair to assume that they now adhere to China. s governing and policies. There are possibly some Nosu who do reject government assistance in order to maintain as much independence as possible.

Judicial System:

The Yi would likely conform to the Chinese judicial system which assumes that a person who has been arrested and is on trail is guilty. However, in the past the Yi had little or no judicial system because most disputes were settled by force.

Mobility:

The Chinese people are limited in their ability to move from one place to another on a permanent basis. Students may live in various cities while attending school, but permanent residence is dependent upon an individual. s job and "hukou" or residence permit (which is established through employment). Because few Yi attend upper level schools, their ability to move about is even less than the average Chinese. Some do, however, attend teacher colleges or universities which would place them in cities. Other Yi travel to cities in search of employment, but their tasks tend to be menial and their residence illegal. No Yi would have the ability to travel outside of China.

Openness to change:

In general, the Yi culture is very slow to change if not static. It has remained relatively intact for thousands of years because of the isolated places in which they live.

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Birth Customs:

Unknown

Childhood Customs:

"Children were treated indulgently and learned about their roles and tasks in the daily life of family and the community through oral transmission& . Customary laws and moral standards were also taught at an early age, and youngsters were expected to learn their clan genealogies by heart." Much effort was given to the training up of sons to be warriors.

Youth Customs:

"There was a special coming of age ceremony for girls at the ages of fifteen or seventeen, known as . Change Skirt. ceremony. Odd numbers were considered lucky. During the ceremony, the girl changed into long colorful skirts, and her hairstyle changed from a single plait into double plaits looped behind each ear. She also received earrings."

Courtship Customs:

Traditionally, Yi marriages were arranged by the parents. Bride prices were often high. In some cases divination using a slaughtered pig was also involved. With the Black Yi preference was also given to marrying certain cousins. There was not very much opportunity for young people to become acquainted except at other relatives. weddings or singing parties.

The Axi Moonlight Dance is an example of such an opportunity. This particular dance is over a century old. Originally it served as a means of escape from the oppression of their feudal rulers. They created an instrument from sheepskin and toon wood and met together in open spaces in the moonlit woods to sing and dance. It was also an opportunity for the young people to met. Today, the Axi people still gather in a meadow near the village. The young men play three stringed plucked instruments or blow short flutes, while the girls sing and dance to their accompaniment. By the climax of the dance everyone is dancing and singing together.

Current day marriages are probably not arranged, though parental approval is undoubtedly given high priority.

Marriage Customs:

During the period of slavery and the feudal system, there were strict rules as to whom one could marry. Bilateral cross-cousin marriages were the most common. Marriages of close relatives are so frequent that it is commonly said, "Auntie's daughter is born to be uncle's daughter-in-law." Parallel cousin marriage was prohibited and even punishable by death. Marriages were usually arranged, but the couple had more involvement than in Han population. In these marriages, the groom would pay a betrothal price of gifts and money to the bride. s family. One interesting tradition surrounding the wedding was the kidnapping of the bride. The groom would go to the house of the bride on the wedding day and forcibly take her away. She would playfully fight and struggle against him, though everyone involved knew it was a game. This tradition is still practiced today by some.

The Yi bride's wedding dress must be made by herself and his mother together with her sisters during the month before her wedding. This dress can't be sent or sold to the others. And this dress will also be worn at her funeral.

At the day of wedding, the bridegroom will have to snatch a pair of trousers which is given by the bride from the bridesmaid. Only after the bridegroom gets this trousers, they can hold the ceremony.

When the family of bride's or bridegroom's entertain the guests, all they need to do is to prepare the dishware. The guests will bring the food.

Other customs include the covering of the bride's head and shoulders, showing her face to no one, until the groom comes and releases her. This indicates that the woman. s disgrace has been lifted and the two can be partners.

In another Nosu wedding, an escort team arrives at the bride. s house at sunset. The carry wine and meat as gifts and are received by the girls of the house who splash them with water and then smear them with soot. (This is one of the ways in which the young people become acquainted and possibly fall in love.) Early the next morning (the journey may not start after daybreak), the bride is carried piggy-back out of her home by a male cousin. The bride. s feet are not allowed to touch the ground and she is not allowed to cross a bridge. The bride arrives at, but does not enter the groom. s house. She stays in a makeshift hut and at sunset mounts an unsaddled horse with her cousin. s assistance. She dismounts, before leaving, and enters the groom. s home for a meal. She is now a part of the family. The next day she is escorted back to her own home. Then the groom arrives with friends and gifts. After a few more days the groom sends people to bring his wife back to his home and they are considered husband and wife.

Death Customs:

Death customs: In the past the Yi have cremated their dead. Even in recent years this seems to hold true, though questionably accurate as an "across the board" generalization. Some prefer earth burials.

In one situation where a man had died, he was dressed in a burial suit and placed on a bier for people to mourn for seven days. Married daughters rush to the scene to make sacrificial offerings. Mourners wear their holiday best "as if it were cause for celebration." The family rides horses in the processional (indicating their wealth). The body is placed on a pyre with the head facing north and covered with twigs and green leaves. Then it is set on fire. Several men fire off a volley of gunshots and all the people present begin wailing. Then a dinner is served for all the mourners. In this situation the funeral rites were considered to be of highest importance, more so even than a wedding.

"The Yis pay special attention to the dead man. s soul." An elaborate memorial tablet is fashioned out of bamboo tubes and strips. (Sometimes the tablets are even carved from bamboo or wood and made into the form of a human shape.) The tablet is placed in the home of the youngest son until three years after both parents pass away. At this time a solemn ceremony is performed where oxen and sheep are sacrificed and a chanting sorcerer leads the party to a faraway cave where the tablet is deposited. This location is secret.

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Primary religion: Animism-

The Yi have a syncretized, polytheistic religion, which combines well-developed animism and ancestor worship. It is also influenced by Buddhism and Taoism. All aspects of Yi life are pervaded with magic. Medicine, exorcism, cursing enemies, causing rain, etc. are all affected by magic. Divination and a strong belief in the spirit world are also common.

"Butuo is the highest county in the Greater Liangshan Mountains. On top of every house in Butuo there is a memorial tablet and, on New Year. s Day or at other festivals, alters are set up before these tablets to perform sacrificial rites. The fact is that, in the Yi society in the Liangshan, people worship their ancestors and believe in gods and spirits. This is why the Yis have wizards or sorcerers called bimo and suni, said to be in communication with the spirit world."

Lolo, the name by which many Yi are known, is the word for "sacred basket." This basket contains short bamboo tubes which they believe contain the spirits of their ancestors. These "Lolo baskets" are made by each generation and are burned in the third generation when the spirits of the ancestors are no longer needed.

The Yi do have some sacred writings. These writings contain a flood story that parallels the Biblical account. The Yi also have a creation story in which God created man from the earth. They recognize two chief spirits - Mu-pu-mo and Ie-su. Ie-su is the lord of life and happiness and is the same as the Chinese (mandarin) for Jesus.

The Yi have no significant second religion

Percent who practice Christianity: 2%

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• Cheng, Xiamin. "A Survey of the Demographic Problems of the Yi Nationality in the Greater and Lesser Liang Mountains." Social Sciences in China. 3: Autumn 1984, 207 - 231.
• Covell, Ralph. Mission Impossible.
• _______. The Liberating Gospel in China. [The chapter entitled "A People Divided" is particularly good.]
• Dessaint, Alain Y. Minorities of Southwest China: An Introduction to the Yi (Lolo) and Related Peoples. (New Haven: HRAF Press, 1980).
• Du, Ruofu and Vincent F. Vip. Ethnic Groups in China. (Beijing, China: Science Press, 1993).
• Friedrich, Paul and Norma Daimond, vol. eds. "Russia and Eurasia / China." Encyclopedia of World Cultures, vol. 6. (Boston, Massachusetts: G. K. Hall & Co., 1994).
• Grimes, Barbara F. Ethnologue. (Dallas: Wycliffe Bible Translators, 1988).
• Harrell, Stevan, ed. Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic Frontiers. "The History of the History of the Yi." (Seattle, Washington: University of Washington Press, 1995).
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• Maheu, Betty Ann and Michael Sloboda. "Some Facts about China's Ethnic Minorities." Tripod. (January - February 1994), 18 - 28.
• Wu, Si. China Tourism. "Yi Life in the Greater and Lesser Liangshan Mountains." (No. 94).
• Zhang, Weiwen and Qingnan Zeng. In Search of China's Minorities. (Beijing, China: New World Press).

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